Main article:
Degree (freemasonry)The
three degrees of
Craft or
Blue Lodge Freemasonry
are
those of:
- Entered Apprentice – the degree of
an Initiate, which makes
one a Freemason;
- Fellow Craft
– an intermediate degree, involved with
learning;
- Master
Mason – the "third degree", a necessity for
participation in
most aspects of Masonry.
The degrees represent stages
of personal development. No Freemason is
told that there is only one
meaning to the allegories; as a Freemason
works through the degrees
and studies their lessons, he interprets them
for himself, his
personal interpretation being bounded only by the
Constitution
within which he works.
[32] A common symbolic
structure and universal archetypes provide a means
for each
Freemason to come to his own answers to life's important
philosophical
questions.
There is no degree of Craft Freemasonry higher than that
of Master
Mason.
[21] Although some
Masonic bodies and orders have further degrees named with
higher
numbers, these degrees may be considered to be supplements to
the
Master Mason degree rather than promotions from it.
[22] An example is the
Scottish Rite, conferring degrees numbered
from
4° up to 33°.
[37] It is essential to
be a Master Mason in order to qualify for these
further degrees.
They are administered on a parallel system to
Craft or
Blue
Lodge Freemasonry; within each organisation there is a
system
of offices, which confer rank within that degree or order alone.
In
some jurisdictions, especially those in continental Europe,
Freemasons
working through the degrees may be asked to prepare papers on
related philosophical topics, and present these papers in open Lodge.
There
is an enormous bibliography of Masonic papers, magazines and
publications
ranging from fanciful abstractions which construct
spiritual and
moral lessons of varying value, through practical
handbooks on
organisation, management and ritual performance, to serious
historical and philosophical papers entitled to academic respect.
Signs,
grips
and wordsFreemasons use
signs (gestures),
grips or
tokens (handshakes) and
words to gain admission to meetings and
identify legitimate visitors.
From
the early 18th century onwards, many exposés have been written
claiming
to reveal these signs, grips and passwords to the uninitiated. A
classic response was deliberately to transpose certain words in the
ritual,
so as to catch out anyone relying on the exposé. However, since
each
Grand Lodge is free to create its own rituals, the signs, grips and
passwords can and do differ from jurisdiction to jurisdiction.
[26] Furthermore, Grand
Lodges can and do change their rituals periodically,
updating the
language used, adding or omitting sections.
[38] Therefore, any
exposé can only be valid for a particular jurisdiction
at a
particular time, and is always difficult for an outsider to verify.
Today, an unknown visitor may be required to produce a certificate,
dues
card or other documentation of membership in addition to
demonstrating
knowledge of the signs, grips and passwords.
ObligationsObligations
are those elements of ritual in which a candidate swears
to abide
by the rules of the fraternity, to keep the "secrets of
Freemasonry"
(which are the various signs, tokens and words associated
with
recognition in each degree), and to act towards others in
accordance
with Masonic tradition and law.
[25] In regular
jurisdictions these obligations are sworn on the
aforementioned
Volume
of the Sacred Law and in the witness of the
Supreme Being and
often with assurance that it is of the candidate's
own free will.
Details
of the obligations vary; some versions are published
[25] while others are
privately printed in books of coded text. Still other
jurisdictions
rely on oral transmission of ritual, and thus have no
ritual books
at all.
[39] Moreover, not all
printed rituals are authentic –
Léo
Taxil's exposure, for example, is a proven
hoax, while Duncan's
Masonic Monitor (created, in part, by merging
elements of several
rituals then in use) was never adopted by any
regular jurisdiction.
Whilst no single obligation is representative
of Freemasonry as a
whole, a number of common themes appear when
considering a range of
potential texts. Content which may appear in
at least one of the three
obligations includes: the candidate
promises to act in a manner
befitting a member of civilised society,
promises to obey the law of his
Supreme Being, promises to obey the
law of his sovereign state,
promises to attend his lodge if he is
able, promises not to wrong, cheat
nor defraud the Lodge or the
brethren, and promises aid or charity to a
member of the human
family, brethren and their families in times of
need if it can be
done without causing financial harm to himself or his
dependents.
[25][40][41]The obligations are
historically known amongst various sources
critical of Freemasonry
for their so-called "bloody penalties",
[42] an allusion to the
apparent physical penalties associated with each
degree. This leads
to some descriptions of the Obligations as "Oaths".
The
corresponding text, with regard to the penalties, does not appear in
authoritative, endorsed sources,
[25] following a decision
"that all references to physical penalties be
omitted from the
obligations taken by Candidates in the three Degrees
and by a Master
Elect at his Installation but retained elsewhere in the
respective
ceremonies".
[43] The penalties are
interpreted symbolically, and are not applied in
actuality by a
Lodge or by any other body of Masonry. The descriptive
nature of the
penalties alludes to how the candidate should feel about
himself
should he knowingly violate his obligation.
[44] Modern actual
penalties may include suspension, expulsion or reprimand.
LandmarksMain
article:
Masonic LandmarksThe
Landmarks of Masonry are defined as ancient and unchangeable
principles;
standards by which the regularity of Lodges and Grand Lodges
are
judged. Each Grand Lodge is self-governing and no single authority
exists
over the whole of Freemasonry. The interpretation of these
principles
therefore can and does vary, leading to controversies of
recognition.
The
concept of Masonic Landmarks appears in Masonic regulations as
early
as 1723, and seems to be adopted from the regulations of operative
masonic guilds. In 1858,
Albert
G. Mackey attempted to set down 25
Landmarks.
[45] In 1863, George
Oliver published a Freemason's Treasury in which he
listed 40
Landmarks. A number of American Grand Lodges have attempted
the task
of enumerating the Landmarks; numbers differing from West
Virginia
(7) and New Jersey (10) to Nevada (39) and Kentucky (54).
[46]Charitable
effortThe fraternity is widely involved in charity
and community service
activities. In contemporary times, money is
collected
only from
the membership, and is to be devoted to
charitable purposes.
Freemasonry worldwide disburses substantial charitable
amounts to
non-Masonic charities, locally, nationally and
internationally.
[47][48] In earlier
centuries, however, charitable funds were collected more on
the
basis of a Provident or
Friendly Society, and there were
elaborate
regulations to determine a petitioner's eligibility for
consideration
for charity, according to strictly Masonic criteria.
Some examples
of Masonic charities include:
In addition to these, there are
thousands of philanthropic
organisations around the world created by
Freemasons. The Masonic
Service Association,
[53] the Masonic Medical
Research Laboratory,
[54] and the
Shriners Hospitals for Children[55] are especially
notable charitable endeavours that Masons have founded
and continue
to support both intellectually and monetarily.
Membership
requirements
Freemasonry
initiation. 18th century
Contrary
to common misconception, joining Freemasonry is not by
invitation
only. In fact, in many jurisdictions, the brothers of the
lodge are
not allowed to ask potential candidates to join (in these
jurisdictions,
the brethren must wait for the potential candidate to
inquire).
Other jurisdictions allow for varying degrees of solicitation.
However
the initial introduction is made, the official process of
becoming a
Mason begins when a candidate for Freemasonry formally
petitions a
lodge. The brethren will then investigate the candidate, to
assure
themselves of his good character, and hold a secret ballot
election
(often using an old fashioned
ballot
box). The number of adverse votes needed
to reject a candidate
varries from jurisdiction to jurisdiction (in
some, one "
black
ball" is enough to
reject, in others up to three are required).
General
requirementsGenerally,
to be accepted for initiation as a regular Freemason, a
candidate
must:
[21]
- Be a man
who comes of his own free will.
- Believe in a Supreme Being
(the form of which is left to open
interpretation by the candidate).
- Be
at least the minimum age (from 18–25 years old depending on the
jurisdiction.
In some jurisdictions the son of a Mason, known as a
"Lewis", may
join at an earlier age than others).
- Be of good morals, and of
good reputation.
- Be of sound mind and body (Lodges had in the
past denied membership
to a man because of a physical disability;
however, now, if a potential
candidate says a disability will not
cause problems, it will not be held
against him).
- Be
free-born (or "born free", i.e., not born a slave or
bondsman).[56]
As with the
previous, this is entirely an historical holdover, and can
be
interpreted in the same manner as it is in the context of being
entitled
to write a will.
Some jurisdictions have
removed this requirement.
- Be capable of furnishing character
references, as well as one or two
references from current Masons,
depending on jurisdiction.
Some Grand Lodges in the
United States have an additional residence
requirement, candidates
being expected to have lived within the
jurisdiction for a certain
period of time, typically six months.
[57]Membership
and
religionFreemasonry explicitly and openly states
that it is neither a
religion nor a substitute for one. "There is no
separate Masonic God",
nor a separate proper name for a deity in
any branch of Freemasonry.
[28][58]Regular Freemasonry
requires that its candidates believe in a
Supreme
Being, but
the interpretation of the term is subject to the
conscience of the
candidate. This means that Freemasonry accepts men
from a wide range
of faiths, including (but not limited to)
Christianity,
Judaism,
Islam,
Buddhism,
Sikhism,
Hinduism,
etc.
Since the early 19th century,
in the
irregular Continental
European tradition (meaning
irregular to those Grand Lodges in
amity with the United Grand Lodge of
England), a very broad
interpretation has been given to a
non-dogmatic Supreme Being; in the
tradition of
Baruch Spinoza and
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe – or
views
of
The Ultimate Cosmic Oneness – along
with
Western
atheistic idealism and
agnosticism.
The form of Freemasonry most common
in
Scandinavia,
known as the
Swedish Rite, on the other hand, accepts only
Christians.
Freemasonry
and
WomenMain articles:
Freemasonry and Women and
Co-FreemasonrySince the adoption of
Anderson's constitution in 1723, it has been
accepted as fact by
regular Masons that only men can be made Masons.
Most Grand Lodges
do not admit women because they believe it would
violate the ancient
Landmarks. While a few women, such as
Elizabeth Aldworth, were initiated into British
speculative
lodges prior to 1723,
[59] officially regular
Freemasonry remains exclusive to men.
While women cannot join regular
lodges, there are (mainly within the
borders of the United States)
many female orders associated with regular
Freemasonry and its
appendant bodies, such as the
Order of the Eastern Star, the
Order of the Amaranth, the White
Shrine of
Jerusalem, the Social Order of Beauceant and the
Daughters of the Nile. These have
their
own rituals and traditions, but are founded on the Masonic model.
In
the French context, women in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries
had
been admitted into what were known as "adoption lodges" in which
they
could participate in ritual life. However, men clearly saw this
type
of adoption Freemasonry as distinct from their exclusively male
variety.
From the late nineteenth century onward, mixed gender lodges
have
met in France.
In addition, there are many non-mainstream Masonic
bodies that do
admit both men and women or are exclusively for
women.
Co-Freemasonry admits both men and
women,
[60] but it is held to be
irregular because it admits women. The systematic
admission of
women into International Co-Freemasonry began in France in
1882. In
more recent times, women have created and maintained separate
Lodges,
working the same rituals as the all male regular lodges. These
Female
Masons have founded lodges around the world, and these Lodges
continue
to gain membership.
Opposition to and
criticism of
FreemasonryMain article:
Anti-MasonrySee also:
Masonic conspiracy theoriesAnti-Masonry (alternatively called
Anti-Freemasonry)
has been defined as
"opposition to Freemasonry".
[61][62] However, there is no
homogeneous anti-Masonic movement. Anti-Masonry
consists of widely
differing criticisms from diverse (and often
incompatible) groups
who are hostile to Freemasonry in some form.
Critics have included
religious groups, political groups, and
conspiracy theorists.
There have
been many disclosures and exposés dating as far back as
the
eighteenth century. These often lack context,
[63] may be outdated for
various reasons,
[38] or could be outright
hoaxes on the part of the author, as in the case of
the
Taxil
hoax.
[64]These hoaxes and
exposés have often become the basis for criticism of
Masonry, often
religious or political in nature (usually by
totalitarian
dictatorial regimes,
[65] but also arising in
the historical
Anti-Masonic Party in the United
States),
or are based on suspicion of corrupt conspiracy of some
form. The
political opposition that arose after the "
Morgan Affair" in 1826 gave
rise
to the term "
Anti-Masonry", which is still in
use today,
both by Masons in referring to their critics and as a
self-descriptor by
the critics themselves.
[66]Religious
oppositionFreemasonry
has attracted criticism from
theocratic states and organised religions for
supposed competition with religion,
or supposed
heterodoxy within the Fraternity itself, and has
long
been the target of
conspiracy theories, which see
it
as an
occult and evil power.
Christianity
and FreemasonryMain articles:
Christianity and Freemasonry and
Catholicism and
FreemasonryAlthough
members of various faiths cite objections, certain
Christian denominations have had high profile
negative attitudes to Masonry, banning or discouraging their
members
from being Freemasons.
The denomination with the longest
history of objection to Freemasonry
is the
Roman Catholic Church.
The
objections raised by the Roman Catholic Church are based on the
allegation
that Masonry teaches a naturalistic
deistic religion which is in conflict with
Church
doctrine.
[67] A number of Papal
pronouncements have been issued against Freemasonry.
The first was
Pope Clement XII's In Eminenti, 28 April 1738; the most recent
was
Pope Leo XIII's Ab
Apostolici, 15 October 1890. The 1917
Code of Canon Law explicitly
declared
that joining Freemasonry entailed automatic
excommunication.
[68] The 1917 Code of
Canon Law also forbade books friendly to Freemasonry.
In 1983, the
Church issued a new Code of
Canon Law. Unlike its predecessor, it did not
explicitly
name Masonic orders among the
secret societies it condemns. It
states in part:
"A person who joins an association which plots against
the Church
is to be punished with a just penalty; one who promotes or
takes
office in such an association is to be punished with an
interdict."
This omission
caused both Catholics and Freemasons to believe that the
ban on
Catholics becoming Freemasons may have been lifted, especially
after
the perceived liberalisation of
Vatican II.
[69] However, the matter
was clarified when Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger (later
Pope Benedict XVI), as the Prefect of the
Congregation for the
Doctrine of
the Faith, issued
Quaesitum
est, which states: "... the
Church’s negative judgment in
regard to Masonic association remains
unchanged since their principles
have always been considered
irreconcilable with the doctrine of the
Church and therefore
membership in them remains forbidden. The faithful
who enroll in
Masonic associations are in a state of grave sin and may
not receive
Holy Communion." Thus,
from a Catholic
perspective, there is still a ban on Catholics joining
Masonic
Lodges. For its part, Freemasonry has never objected to
Catholics
joining their fraternity. Those Grand Lodges in amity with
UGLE deny
the Church's claims and state that they explicitly adhere to
the
principle that "Freemasonry is not a religion, nor a substitute for
religion."
[28]In contrast to
Catholic allegations of rationalism and naturalism,
Protestant
objections are more likely to be based on allegations of
mysticism,
occultism, and even
Satanism.
[70] Masonic scholar
Albert Pike is often quoted (in some cases
misquoted)
by Protestant anti-Masons as an authority for the position of
Masonry on these issues. However, Pike, although undoubtedly learned,
was
not a spokesman for Freemasonry and was controversial among
Freemasons
in general, representing his personal opinion only, and
furthermore
an opinion grounded in the attitudes and understandings of
late
19th century Southern Freemasonry of the USA alone. Indeed his book
carries in the preface a form of disclaimer from his own Grand Lodge.
No
one voice has ever spoken for the whole of Freemasonry.
[71]Free Methodist Church founder
B.T. Roberts was a vocal opponent of Freemasonry
in the mid 18th century. Roberts opposed the society on moral grounds
and
stated, "The god of the lodge is not the God of the Bible." Roberts
believed
Freemasonry was a "
mystery" or "alternate" religion
and
encouraged his church not to support ministers who were
Freemasons.
Freedom from secret societies is one of the "frees" the
Free Methodist Church was founded
upon.
[72]Since the founding of
Freemasonry, many Bishops of the
Church of England have been Freemasons, such as
Archbishop Geoffrey Fisher.
[73] In the past, few
members of the Church of England would have seen any
incongruity in
concurrently adhering to Anglican Christianity and
practicing
Freemasonry. In recent decades, however, reservations about
Freemasonry
have increased within Anglicanism, perhaps due to the
increasing
prominence of the evangelical wing of the church. The current
Archbishop of Canterbury,
Dr Rowan Williams, appears to harbour some
reservations
about Masonic ritual, whilst being anxious to avoid
causing offence to
Freemasons inside and outside the Church of
England. In 2003 he felt it
necessary to apologise to British
Freemasons after he said that their
beliefs were incompatible with
Christianity and that he had barred the
appointment of Freemasons to
senior posts in his diocese when he was
Bishop of Monmouth.
[74]Regular Freemasonry
has traditionally not responded to these claims,
beyond the often
repeated statement that those Grand Lodges in amity
with UGLE
explicitly adhere to the principle that "Freemasonry is not a
religion,
nor a substitute for religion. There is no separate 'Masonic
deity',
and there is no separate proper name for a deity in
Freemasonry".
[28] In recent years,
however, this has begun to change. Many Masonic
websites and
publications address these criticisms specifically.
Islam and
FreemasonryMany
Islamic anti-Masonic arguments are closely tied
to
both
Anti-Semitism and
Anti-Zionism,
though other criticisms are made
such as linking Freemasonry to
Dajjal.
[75] Some Muslim
anti-Masons argue that Freemasonry promotes the interests
of the
Jews around the world and that one of its aims
is to rebuild the
Temple of Solomon in
Jerusalem after destroying the
Al-Aqsa Mosque.
[76] In article 28 of its
Covenant,
Hamas states
that Freemasonry,
Rotary, and other similar groups
"work in the
interest of Zionism and according to its instructions
..."
[77] Many countries with
a significant Muslim population do not allow
Masonic establishments
within their jurisdictions. However, countries
such as
Turkey and
Morocco have established Grand Lodges,
[78] while in countries
such as
Malaysia[79] and
Lebanon[80] there are District
Grand Lodges operating under a warrant from an
established Grand
Lodge.
Masonic lodges existed in
Iraq as early as 1919, when the first lodge under
the
UGLE was opened in Basra,
[citation needed] and
later
on when the country was under
British Mandate just after
the
First World War. However the position changed in July 1958 following
the Revolution, with the abolition of the Monarchy and Iraq being
declared
a republic, under
General Qasim. The licences
permitting lodges to
meet were rescinded and later laws were
introduced banning any further
meetings. This position was later
reinforced under
Saddam Hussein, the death penalty
was "prescribed" for
those who "promote or acclaim Zionist
principles, including freemasonry,
or who associate [themselves]
with Zionist organisations."
[81] With the fall of the
Hussein government in 2003, a number of Lodges
have begun to meet
on military bases within Iraq. These lodges primarily
cater to
British and American military units, but a few have initiated
Iraqis.
Several Grand Lodges have expressed a desire to charter Lodges
with
completely Iraqi membership in the near future.
[citation needed]Political
oppositionSee also:
Anti-Masonry and
Suppression of FreemasonryRegular
Freemasonry has in its core ritual a formal obligation: to be
quiet
and peaceable citizens, true to the lawful government of the
country
in which they live, and not to countenance disloyalty or
rebellion.
[32] A Freemason makes a
further obligation, before being made Master of his
Lodge, to pay a
proper respect to the civil
magistrates.
[32] The words may be
varied across Grand Lodges, but the sense in the
obligation taken is
always there. Nevertheless, much of the political
opposition to
Freemasonry is based upon the idea that Masonry will
foment (or
sometimes prevent) rebellion.
In 1799 English Freemasonry almost came
to a halt due to
Parliamentary proclamation. In the wake of the
French Revolution, the
Unlawful Societies Act,
1799 banned any meetings of groups that required their members
to take an
oath or
obligation.
[82] The Grand Masters
of both the Moderns and the Antients Grand Lodges
called on the
Prime Minister William Pitt (who was not a Freemason) and
explained
to him that Freemasonry was a supporter of the law and
lawfully
constituted authority and was much involved in charitable work.
As a
result Freemasonry was specifically exempted from the terms of the
Act, provided that each Private Lodge's Secretary placed with the local
"Clerk of the Peace" a list of the members of his Lodge once a year.
[82] This continued
until 1967 when the obligation of the provision was
rescinded by
Parliament.
[82]Freemasonry in the
United States faced political pressure following
the disappearance
of
William Morgan in 1826. Reports
of
the "Morgan Affair", together with opposition to
Jacksonian democracy (Andrew
Jackson
was a prominent Mason) helped fuel an Anti-Masonic movement,
culminating
in the formation of a short lived
Anti-Masonic Party which fielded
candidates for
the Presidential elections of 1828 and 1832.
In Italy, Freemasonry
has become linked to a scandal concerning the
Propaganda Due Lodge (aka P2). This Lodge was
Chartered by the
Grande Oriente
d'Italia in
1877, as a Lodge for visiting Masons unable to attend
their own
lodges. Under
Licio
Gelli’s leadership, in
the late 1970s, the P2 Lodge became involved
in the financial
scandals that nearly bankrupted the
Vatican Bank. However, by this time the lodge
was
operating independently and irregularly; as the Grand Orient had
revoked
its charter in 1976.
[83] By 1982 the scandal
became public knowledge and Gelli was formally
expelled from
Freemasonry.
Conspiracy theorists have long
associated Freemasonry with the
New World Order and the
Illuminati, and state that Freemasonry as an
organisation
is either bent on world domination or already secretly in
control
of world politics. Historically, Freemasonry has attracted
criticism
– and suppression – from both the politically
extreme
right (e.g.
Nazi Germany)
[84][85] and the
extreme left (e.g. the former
Communist states in
Eastern Europe).
[65] The Fraternity has
encountered both applause for supposedly founding,
and opposition
for supposedly thwarting,
liberal democracy (such as the United States of
America).
Even in modern democracies, Freemasonry is sometimes viewed
with
distrust.
[86] In the
UK,
Masons working in the justice system, such
as judges and police
officers, were from 1999 to 2009 required to
disclose their
membership.
[87] While a
parliamentary inquiry found that there has been no evidence of
wrongdoing,
it was felt that any potential loyalties Masons might have,
based
on their vows to support fellow Masons, should be transparent to
the
public.
[86][87][88] The policy of
requiring a declaration of masonic membership of
applicants for
judicial office (judges and magistrates) was ended in
2009 by
Justice Secretary Jack Straw, (who had initiated the requirement
in
the 1990s). Straw stated that the rule was considered
disproportionate,
since no impropriety or malpractice had been shown as a
result of
judges being Freemasons.
[89].
The rescinding of
the rule did not change the disclosure requirements
for Police
officers.
Freemasonry is both successful and controversial in
France;
membership is rising, but reporting in
the popular media is often
negative.
[86]In some countries
anti-Masonry is often related to
anti-Semitism and
anti-Zionism.
For example, In 1980, the Iraqi
legal and penal code was changed by
Saddam Hussein's ruling
Ba'ath
Party, making it a felony to "promote or
acclaim Zionist
principles, including Freemasonry, or who associate
[themselves] with
Zionist organisations."
[90] Professor
Andrew Prescott, of the
University
of Sheffield, writes: "Since at least the time of the
Protocols of the Elders of
Zion,
anti-semitism has gone hand in hand with anti-masonry, so it
is not
surprising that allegations that
11 September was a
Zionist plot
have been accompanied by suggestions that the attacks were
inspired
by a masonic world order."
[91]The HolocaustMain
article:
The
HolocaustSee also:
Freemasonry
under authoritarian
regimes and
Liberté chérie
(Freemasonry)The
preserved records of the
Reichssicherheitshauptamt (the
Reich
Security Main Office) show the persecution of Freemasons.
[92] RSHA Amt VII
(Written Records) was overseen by Professor
Franz
Six and was responsible for "ideological"
tasks, by which was meant
the creation of anti-Semitic and
anti-Masonic propaganda. While the
number is not accurately known,
it is estimated that between 80,000 and
200,000 Freemasons were
killed under the
Nazi regime. Masonic concentration
camp inmates were graded
as political prisoners and wore an inverted
red triangle.
[93]
Forget-me-notThe small blue
forget-me-not flower was first used by the
Grand
Lodge
Zur Sonne, in 1926, as a Masonic emblem at the annual
convention in
Bremen, Germany. In 1938
the
forget-me-not badge – made by the same factory as the Masonic
badge –
was chosen for the annual Nazi Party
Winterhilfswerk, a Nazi charitable
organisation
which collected money so that other state funds could be
freed up
and used for rearmament. This coincidence enabled Freemasons to
wear
the forget-me-not badge as a secret sign of membership.
[94][95][96]After
World War II, the forget-me-not
[97] flower was again
used as a Masonic emblem at the first Annual
Convention of the
United Grand Lodges of Germany in 1948. The badge is
now worn in the
coat lapel by Freemasons around the world to remember
all those
that have suffered in the name of Freemasonry, especially
those
during the Nazi era.
[97][98]
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Tiêu đề: MASONIC-Hội tam điểm 
